Trying Juveniles as Adults - 1404 Words

When it comes to trying juveniles as adults, it is a strong issue to follow through, but it has been a controversial topic to the public. This topic is a controversial topic even considering that there are numerous arguments to put forth on both sides. There will be stated pros and cons of each side and articles to back up the arguments. Juveniles are defined as children who fall under the age of 18, depending on the state. Even though, some juveniles are tried as adults despite their under age. In this article the Pro side is going to be, the crime is a crime no matter who did it. Even if a child did a crime doesn’t mean the victim didn’t suffer. There are several people who believe that the juvenile court has been established with the†¦show more content†¦According to examiner.com, â€Å"research shows that the human brain goes through a slow maturation process between ages 10 through 25.The emotional make-up of a child is generally fully developed by age five (Examiner).† So, when it comes to this study it shows that Cameron Kocher’s brain wasn’t even in the start of its process. Therefore, Cameron showed the signs he was showing because he most likely didn’t fully understand what was going on, or what he did. During this time, when juveniles have no responsibilities, and maturity it is not expected of them, they most likely do not understand the consequences. Therefore, it is considered unjust to convict them in the mann er as adults. Also, in CNN according to Jessica Reaves, â€Å"The juvenile prison system can help kids turn their lives around; rehabilitation gives kids a second chance. Successful rehabilitation, many argue, is better for society in the long run than releasing someone whos spent their entire young adult life in general prison population. A young person released from juvenile prison is far less likely to commit a crime than someone coming out of an adult facility (Reaves).† This is another way to look at the situation. When it comes to juvenile’s rehabilitation is a way to help the juvenile fully understand what have gotten them in their certain situation. Also, it’s a way to add onto what they can do to make sure the juvenile doesn’tShow MoreRelatedTrying Juveniles as Adults Essay1312 Words   |  6 PagesAccording to Caldwell (1961) the juvenile justice system is based on the principle that youth are developmentally and fundamentally different from adults. According to Mack (1909) the focus of the juvenile justice system has shifted from â€Å"was the crime commi tted† to â€Å"why did the child commit the crime†, â€Å"how can we help the child†. When performing as it is designed and up to the initial intentions, the juvenile court balances rehabilitation (treatment) of the offender with suitable sanctions whenRead MoreTrying Juveniles As Adults And Providing Rehabilitation1598 Words   |  7 PagesTrying Juveniles As Adults And Providing Rehabilitation During Incarceration Today’s heated debate regarding the decision to try juveniles as adults has prompted individuals to construct opinionated and informational articles on the topic. The nation’s troubled youth are protected by groups that believe these offenders deserve rehabilitation and a chance to develop into a productive member of society. However, others believe that those committing certain heinous crimes should be tried as adults asRead MoreRole of Cognitive Development in Trying Juveniles as Adults Essay example618 Words   |  3 Pagesthe United States, you are considered an adult at 18-years old. With age comes a plethora of other privledges. You can drive at 16 with a proper drivers license, legally engage in intercourse at 17, vote and purchase cigarrettes at 18 and purchase and consume alcohol at 21. Although there is one age restriction that hasnt been set in stone. In the justice system, one may be considered an adult at 18 and be tried as such. The option of being trie d as an adult hangs on many circumstances. If the individualRead MoreJuveniles And The Criminal Justice System1594 Words   |  7 Pages Juveniles and the Criminal Justice System There is much debate over whether or not juveniles should ever be tried as adults. Juveniles are defined as children under the age of 18. In the past, juveniles have been tried in a separate juvenile court because of their age. However, trying juveniles as adults for violent crimes is a trend that is on the rise. Age is supposed to be a deterrent for placing those under 18 on trial and giving them stiffer punishments that are often reserved for adults. ManyRead MoreJuveniles Should Be Legal For Adult Courts1528 Words   |  7 Pagesor not juveniles should receive waivers to adult court. There are three methods that are used to transfer a juvenile to adult court. Juvenile waiver, statutory exclusion, and Concurrent Jurisdiction are the three different methods used to transfer a juvenile to adult court. Statutory exclusion is when the juvenile is transferred immediately to the adult court. Concurrent Jurisdiction is when the juvenile may be tried as an adult and a juvenile at once. T hroughout all three methods juvenile waiverRead MoreEssay on Juveniles Tried as Adults843 Words   |  4 PagesFinal : Question #1 A juvenile being tried as an adult is a very sensitive and controversial issue over the past years. There has been a significant increase in the number of juvenile offenders being tried in adult courts for serious crimes. Juveniles should be tried as adults depending on the seriousness of the crime that they commit. There are many factors that contribute to juvenile courts and to what extent a juvenile should be tried as an adult. The juvenile justice system was intendedRead MoreShould Juveniles Be Tried as Adults? Essay867 Words   |  4 Pages29, 2012 Should Juveniles be tried as Adults? There are many controversies that surround juveniles being rehabilitated rather than going through the adult justice system, but studies show that juveniles are not fully developed to be tried as an adult. One of the main questions that it always boils down to is â€Å"should juveniles be tried as adults?† in my opinion juveniles should not be tried as adults because of their age. First, I believe that juveniles should not be tried as adults because their mentalitiesRead MoreJuveniles Being Tried As Adults1238 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Juveniles Being Tried as Adults† There are articles or news reports every once and a while about juveniles committed heinous crimes, but not serving any real time for the crime. Juveniles or even adults should not serve a few years for murder or rape. Murderers, rapists and other criminals are being released from jail every day after serving only very short sentences for their heinous crimes. (Source #1) Who are these criminals and what makes them so special? The criminals are juveniles who commitRead MoreThe Main Aim Of Eradicating Criminal From The Society1439 Words   |  6 PagesJuvenile Crimes The main aim of eradicating criminal from the society is to enhance peaceful coexistence among people and to aid development. In this regard, individuals who fail to fit in this setting should be eradicated regardless of their age and made responsible for their actions. Releasing murderers, rapists, and other criminals from jail after serving a lenient and short sentence does not rehabilitate them in any way. In this regard, all those who are engaged in criminal activities that riskRead MoreEssay Juvenile Delinquency1499 Words   |  6 PagesMain Post: Juvenile delinquency is a problem that affects society as a whole. Understanding Juvenile delinquency is important because it is part of trying to figure out how people in American society should react to it; specifically, in terms of law enforcement officers, their agencies, and State legislators. When deviant behavior becomes continuous, chronic and widespread it gets perceived as a significant part of the population as threatening to the general well-being of society (Thompson

Management accounting and decision making free essay sample

According to Burger (2008) â€Å"Accounting is the language of business. A lot of people think its just numbers, but its really a lot more than that. There are a lot of areas outside of numbers that need to be looked at, processes and procedures, what the tone of the company is. Accounting will take you in just about any direction in a company. ~ Wade Becker, CPA, Beard, Miller Co. The job description of many professions is changing nowadays. The skills to perform a certain job require more skills to perform a particular job. If an example of Information Technology is to be taken then it is realized that once they were left to do IT related jobs or make computers work however, in today’s world IT professionals are now moving into higher level management positions which require them to perform many other tasks which may not be directly related to the their profession. Therefore, a stereotypical role of an accountant was once considered a â€Å"number person† but today’s era demands accounting professional to own and use interactive and communication skills to help with the decision making process across all areas of a business. In a managerial accounting world all professionals must communicate their ideas to other companies using ways which are tactful and effective. Siegel (2000) states that â€Å"Management accountants should be great communicators.† Durry C (1992) believes that management accounting is â€Å"concerned with providing information to managers –that is people inside an organization who direct and control the operations.† In the 19th Century financial accounting was considered to be the need of a society which later evolved to Management accounting. Management accounting became a prerequisite for more detailed information for stock control, product costing and decisions affecting the future. Accounting is facing numerous challenges, as Elkington (1998) states â€Å"business people must increasingly recognise that the challenge now is to help to deliver simultaneously economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity.† All this is making business managers to re-examine the practices that are currently led. Cokins G and Hicks D believe that Managerial accounting is part of an organisations management information system. To follow any business or an organisation aim managers engage in activities which involve an effective cost model as it can be a great asset to an organisation. A business or projects to be a success or failure three things need to be considered, for  example, cost, schedule and performance. A project should be continued within the means provided otherwise stakeholders struggle to finance the project and its abandoned. A success of a manager is when appropriate tools are employed and sound safe decisions are made and follow on with apply ing substantial level of expertise to have effective cost management. The world today is surrounded by increasingly advanced technology such as computer assisted manufacturing and flexible manufacturing systems. According to Cokins and Hicks organizations to compete effectively need to understand the cost of each product or element of their value chain from product design and purchase of material therefore internal cost is very important as mentioned in Cokins and Hicks article because it becomes critical for competitive action and increasing shareholders wealth in the current globally competitive economy. Management accounting systems are the benefactors of the precarious internal cost information. There has been few criticisms leading to the literature of Management accounting system and it has been labeled outdated and there has been criticisms linked to its consistency as it has been thought that it does not provide consistent information with the current strategic management paradigm. Cokins and Hicks believe that systems designs elements should capture the fundamental technology, promote a business based on effective cost model, quality and lead time. Precise and appropriate cost information is critical to management’s decision making procedures (Cokins and Hicks) and the literature being studied reveals Management accounting system reflects the organizational complications of the current world however traditional Management accounting systems do not replicate current organizational era as all costing procedures were designed around late nineteenth century. In traditional era product line diversity was not very common and cost of materials and direct labour were the main components of production cost but the environment today is surrounded around advanced technology and automation and that has led the prime cost to be the overhead component. The overhead costs are altering product cost because of the old management accounting system techniques. Management accounting needs a unique set of skills and behaviour. According to Cokins and Hicks Accounting Management framework gives business a planned approach to address all factors that will manage accounts interface and todays reality. Cooper and Kaplan believe there are six critical factors which play a crucial role  in Accounting Management framework which also backs Cokins and Hicks journal being studied for this assignment. The first one is organizational structure. It includes factors such as whom and how you manage accounts, why and how you organize around them. The second account management success factor is people as they need the appropriate skills, knowledge and skills to experience and perform the role. The third factor is tools and technology as it must support the account management processes and must balance â€Å"help† as â€Å"control.† The fourth one is compensations structures as they can inhibit change or accelerate adoption. The fifth account management success factors are processes and methodologies as they should align with the customer, drive growth and opportunity plan and the last factor channels and alliances must be managed effectively through the account manager interface.it is up to an organization to structure their useful employees around their key customers and that can create a deep impact on their performance. First few deliberate decisions need to be taken in terms of placement of accounts management resources such as market and territory. Cokins and Hicks believe management team need to plan using methodology a number of factors to create a ranking based on the business goal for the affiliation and ability to deliver. Once these methodologies are selected they can play a vital role in team structure and it will help to deal with issues such as ownership or shareholders Cokins and Hicks discuss the difference between cost accounting and managerial accounting and the strength of their article is that managerial accounting is tied with GAAP whereas cost accounting is used within a business to manage that particular business. Accounting standards of a country provide guidelines to an accountant so they can be used while reporting economic transactions of a business. United Kingdom accounting has improved a lot as mentioned in the journal being studied for this particular assignment. Managers have immense pressure to improve financial management practices to improve service to the community and it is not only done on national level. Managerial accountants have to keep accountant standards fair globally and that is mainly done through Accounting Standards Committee. â€Å"What gets measured gets managed, What needs managed gets measured† (Peter Drucker) famous quotes has cause many criticisms but if the practices and development mentioned in Cokins and Hicks journal are to be analyzed, one can conclude this quote has some truth. Managers of a business  often use this quote indicates that active management of businesses should be given importance instead of accountability to gain desired goals. It will lead to survive in today’s world of information age competition therefore businesses should ensure they are using management systems resulting from their strengths. Any business main task is to develop an active measurement system as it is main part of the management process. Good management practices lead to using certain measures to plan, implement and improve certain aspects of an organization. According to Kaplan, (1994) measurement is a difficult task because it is not related to science so there are no facts and does not have rules between variables. Furthermore, systems which are used by management accountants will make sure that actions are taken according to the strategies and objectives developed. There has been an immense amount of research on management accountants and the research evidence has proved that businesses which are using a developed measurement system are developing and gaining profits therefore, Gates (1991) states â€Å"an organizations objectives and severity of measures, varies, depending on people, culture and past experiences of the organization.† The management accountant was developed after 1980s and it was seen a golden era in management accounting research as it saw new techniques and practices beneficial to the management accounting. One of the techniques developed in 80s was strategic management accounting and some of the processes which fall under the category of strategic management accounting are activity based costing and balance scorecard. The balance scorecard emerged after it was realized that there is a need of an integrated system which can be used to measure both financial and non-financial performances. It helps companies to view their performances on a regular basis and it gave a clear view of what should be measured in order to balance a particular business financial perspectives. The balance score card consists of four functions known as learning and growth perspective. It means how to achieve a certain organizations goals and how will a business will sustain its ability to change and improve. the second perspective is financial and its aim is to succeed financially and is mainly concerned with making a good impression to shareholders. Another perspective is based on customers as they can determine sales and to achieve business goals a good impression is to be made upon customers. The last perspective is known as internal business  processes. It mainly deals with how to satisfy customers and shareholders and what business processes must a certain business excel as. (Kaplan and Norton:1996) Balance scorecard is one of the necessities for any organization and it is used by the management to accomplish vision and strategies of an organization and it has few other benefits too such as, making sure managers are managing every single variable within an organization and are not working upon favoritism. If more developments are to be discussed and strength of Cokins and Hicks journal than one must not forget one of the major development in an accounting field known as Activity-based costing. Kaplan and Cooper gave this idea a new beginning as it was not very well known in previous years. According to Kaplan (1996) manufacturing costs are determined by amount of â€Å"activities† and the key to effective cost control is maintaining the effectiveness of the activities ABC recognizes better cost pools for indirect costs and then implies cost drivers to relate the expenses in the cost pools to activities of an organization. ABC has become more popular in recent years but faces a lot of criticisms too due to the fact that sometimes businesses face difficulties in implementing this technique. ABC is enhanced further by Activity-based management as they believe in planning and measurement and class them as key factors in a competitive business environment. To conclude, If an organization has accounts managers or not a success can only be achieved if a successful profile is valued. It can be done through an industry as it will help determine to what extent an account manager is an industry expert and the second is through customers as it is vital for an accountant to understand the businesses being worked upon. The profession Accountancy has seen many developments and criticisms however, since 1980s there has been many changes in management accountancy. The new changes are focusing on measurement tools within a business to manage its aims and objectives. Management techniques are discussed briefly in this essay and they emphasize on Cokins and Hicks journal that management decisions can be made better by using effective management measurement tools and it leads to improving the management of an organization. There can be problem with new measurement techniques as nothing in life comes with a guarantee however, new ideas can be used on t he basis of guess work and the new contributions could be a way forward.

Allegory of Corkscrew Essay Example

Allegory of Corkscrew Essay The excerpt of Corkscrew by Dashiell Hammett, dramatizes the trip and arrival of the narrator to a town called Corkscrew, however, in reality the narrator finds himself amidst an allegorical journey to hell. In the opening passage, in order to emphasize the representative setting the author uses a simile to reveal the excruciating, unendurable, and discomforting heat. Along with the implementation of an allusion the writer affirms that people must confront hell alone. As the speaker arrives to Corkscrew the author depicts the narrator with a poignant tone due to hyperbole voiced as he wished for the end of his life. Notably, Hammett also integrates visual imagery in order to represent the final arrival to hell. Hammett exhibits the inhabitants of inferno, utilizing alliteration, satire, and a symbol to embody the peoples unhealthy morals. Therefore, in Corkscrew by Dashiell Hammett, the allegorical aspect of the journey becomes clear due to the setting of the harrowing journey and profligate Corkscrew. Through the characterization of the narrator and Corkscrews citizens, Hammett accentuates that immoral people constituting his pandemonium. Hammett starts his work with an unbearable, solitary, and unconventional trip to Corkscrew, illustrating the narrators symbolic setting. The excerpt starts with complaints from the narrator that he was boiling like a coffeepot, in the white dust of the Arizona desert. The usage of the simile boiling like a coffeepot transmits the unbearable condition of the day; metaphorically presenting the image of the narrator burning in flames, distinctive of a journey to hell. Afterwards, the narrator pronounces his solitary journey when he utters that [he] was the only passenger, in the bus to Corkscrew. We will write a custom essay sample on Allegory of Corkscrew specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Allegory of Corkscrew specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Allegory of Corkscrew specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Considering the usual depiction of hell, as a place people must confront alone, the quote underlines the speakers supreme solitude during his tormenting descent. Simultaneously, the speaker describes the disruption of silence due to the fact, the driver cursed the necessity of stopping to feed his clattering machine more water. Through the citation, the author presents an allusion to Charon, bearing in mind, that Greek mythology describes the way as an extensive meander with an agonizing silence; adjoining to the suggestion, of the speakers incapability of escaping from odyssey. Furthermore, the diction feed personifies the vehicle; implying human weaknesses, like hunger, are what drive people into hell since that forced them to stop and take longer on their way. Accordingly, the narrator realizes the ultimate destiny of his journey as he approaches it. The narrators passage through hells gates ends up giving him a mournful tone as he approaches the city, and ends up rationalizing his trip to hell through his characterization. Sweltering, agonizing, and secluded, the narrator steadily continues his journey to Corkscrew as he aspires to bang out of existence in one explosive flash. Nevertheless, [he] didnt care if, he died. The hyperbolic aspect of his intended death stresses the mans desperation and regret, transmitting the appalling tone, in order to avoid his known destiny. Positing his characterization as a pessimistic, despondent, and afflicted man. The depiction accentuates what aspects oblige a person to endure the austere conditions of that day; and eventually go to the ghoulish Corkscrew. Suddenly the speaker topped a sharp ridge and slid down into Corkscrew. The succinct visual imagery presents the narrators passage through the devilish portal. Considering that the diction slid down suggests the narrators fall into abyss. Hammett utilizes a concise paragraph, signifying the gates thinness. Allowing the reader to intuit the characters promenade through the entrance. Marking the shift from the scalding heat on the road, to the blistering heat in Corkscrew. Thus, once the speaker has gone through he realizes that Corkscrew wouldnt have been impressive at any time. The haughty tone, confirms the protagonists suspicion about Corkscrew, a city of heinous morals.

photo lab essays

photo lab essays Plant and Animal Interrelationships Purpose- to determine the difference in carbon dioxide taken in between a snail (animal) and a elodea (plant) also to see if a symbiotic relationship is present between these two organisms if so does it relate to photosynthesis in any way. Hypothesis- If a photosynthetic organisms is placed in a lighted area and anther in a dark area then the one in the lighted area is going to take in more Carbon dioxide then the one in the dark area. Materials- the Materials that are needed for this project are as follows. glass test tubes, rubber stoppers, Brothymo to measure the amount of Carbon dioxide present in the test tube blue equates to oxygen yellow is carbon dioxide, snails, Elodea, a lamp preferably florescent or one that mimics the sun, test tube racks, eye dropper, distilled water, scotch tape, sharpie marker, and a dark cabinet. Procedure- before you begin the experiment take some time to discus the relationship between light and photosynthesis, also the by-products of photosynthesis. after an initial discussion proceed to locate the 8 test tubes label them A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, and D2 also fill them most of the way full with distilled water but leave enough room for there to be an air pocket as well as room for the stopper. then add 4 drops of Brothymo to each one of the tubes. Place a rubber stopper on A1 and A2 set one in the test tube rack that is labeled light and one on the one that is labeled dark. these are the two controls in the experiment. then take the two test tubes labeled B1 and B2 and put a snail in each one of the put a stopper on each and place the B1 in the light rack and B2 in the dark one. then take the test tubes labeled C1 and C2 and place a Elodea plant in each one, put the stopper on both and then proceed to place C1 in the light rack and C2 in the dark rack. next take the la st two test tubes and place both a Elodea and a snail in each tube put the rubbe ...

Concept of Representation in Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Concept of Representation in Diplomacy - Essay Example In the past, literature in the field of diplomacy has defined representation in various ways, some of which are even conflicting when it comes to its role in international relations in contemporary and future society. However, the importance of diplomatic representation in diplomacy would depend on the meaning attributed to this concept. As a result, the relevance of diplomatic representation has become the centre of a major debate about the importance of diplomacy in a fast evolving world. It's hard for us to picture what ancient diplomacy was all about. However, the diplomacy in the Greek and Roman civilizations was intermittent and generated no permanent in situations.1 (Hamilton and Langhorne 995: 7) "In order to dispense with diplomacy, that is with the methods used by independent governments to work out their own relations with one another, mankind would either have to let independent governments exist without the diplomatic dialogue, or else dispense with independence and 'sovereign states' altogether. They would not be able to conclude peace settlements or treaties with their neighbours, for such settlements are the essence of diplomacy. Each would have to stand alone against a more powerful and aggressive neighbour. They would not be able to get into touch with one another, to band together or form leagues and alliances for mutual protection."2 (Watson 1991:22) THE EVOLUTION OF REPRESENTATION IN DIPLOMACY In the ancient days, representation was not so strong in diplomacy. Niccolo Machiavelli was a great ruler of his time. He is quite famous for his political theory. However, little is known about his reflections on diplomacy. Machiavelli emerged when diplomacy just began its transformation that saw the creation of resident embassies. (Berridge 2001:7-8) In order for us to assess the role of diplomacy in today's world, some scholars argue that residential bilateral diplomacy is gradually becoming irrelevant. However, other scholars continue to uphold this type of diplomacy. These debates have been initiated by the changes that are occurring in the international system. Some scholars believe that the practice of diplomacy needs to adjust in order to adapt to the new environment, meanwhile others feel that the traditional methods still the answer the question today. (Berridge 2001:136) In the past, debates over globalization and global governance claimed that the role of governments decline over the years. But that hasn't happened. We are now witnessing different trends that prove this argument wrong. There is still much government participation in the ways in which government agencies operate. The structures of contemporary diplomacy now operate in such a way that they do not only go out to articulate the international goals and policies of the state. Today's diplomatic structures also tend to represent components of the increasing network of global governance. The transformations in the structures of diplomacy strongly depict the ways in which governments are responding to the changes in the international system. (Manojlovic and Thorheim 2007:12) Changes in the practice of diplomacy began with the introduction of the principle of self-determination, and then later proceeded into the era of

Action, Goals and Benefits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Action, Goals and Benefits - Essay Example It is our most valued possession. While pursuing an education, we will certainly run into obstacles along the way. However, by having a clear vision of our goals and a well-developed habit of study we can clear any hurdles that are placed in our path. Though the pace of today's world makes an education seem difficult, it can be made easier by following some simple rules. One of the first things we realize when we begin an education is that there just doesn't seem to be enough time in the day. It's important to recognize that education is the priority. An awareness of my goals can be the best aide in setting a schedule for my activities (Managing Your Time). It may mean giving up a Sunday football game. I may have to suffer with a couple less hours of sleep now and then. Managing my time will require me to make a schedule that will take priority over most of the other events in my life. Sticking to my schedule will be easier if I concentrate on my goals and my reasons for getting an education. I hope to improve my writing skills in this class and become a better communicator. The ability to write successfully will enhance my professional opportunities as well as give me a sense of personal accomplishment. My current lifestyle and schedule is an obstacle that I need to work around. I work 12 hours a day and set aside Sunday for church. At first glance, it seems that I only have Gen 101: Action, Goals and Benefits Saturdays to study. However, I can read during my lunch breaks at work. I can set aside an hour each night dedicated to my studies. Vince Lombardi once said that hard work is the price we pay to achieve our goals (cited in Determination Quotations). I can extend my study period on Saturday by 2 hours and work in an additional 2 hours on Sunday. This will give me an additional 14 hours of study time each week. It may mean some personal sacrifice, but eventually it will become a habit and will be almost unnoticed. By applying myself to my studies and keeping to my schedule I should see considerable progress throughout the course. I expect my writing to become easier and clearer. The library will open my mind to new opportunities and interests. I expect that my schedule and study routine will become a habit that will transfer to my other courses in the future. I plan to continue my education at the University of Phoenix after I finish this course on March 7, 2007. The path to a degree will also bring about increased opportunities and positions in my employment. Aside from benefiting from an increase in salary, it will also give me greater self-esteem. Education is a continual process of self-improvement and that improvement will show in every part of my life. Whether at work, at home, or in a social situation, an education shines through and makes the whole world a little brighter. To sum it all up, my education is important to me and it is a crucial step on my path to self-improvement. This course will give me the tools to write better, read better, Gen 101: Action, Goals and Benefits study better, and develop a greater sense of personal management. Though my schedule may be packed, I can find ways to set aside the time I need to study. By keeping my goals on my mind, it's easy to make education a priority. Small sacrifices now can realize big rewards later. My plan is to focus on this program and continue to study at UOP. It will give me a greater chance for career advancement and offer me better economic opportunities. Education is the one thing you always carry with you and no one can take from you. This course is a step in acquiring that very valuable

Federalism And The Perspectives Of Democracy Politics Essay

Federalism And The Perspectives Of Democracy Politics Essay The term Federalism which was introduced during 18 and 19 centuries in multicultural societies to meet different social needs in the direction of unity while reserving diversity, another time has been propounded in multi-cultural societies. While, federalism as a political and legal theory in different societies has its own characteristics, and based on the considerations of the units it shows different performances. The technologic revolution along with the development of international information networks have created a great revolution in the structure of governments and power centers, the governments decline took place gradually, great economic poles developed the extensive network of power; as a result, those national, local, and regional units supporting connection between local capital with global capital gain the political power. The Europe Union seeks to spread and reserve its historical achievements and concentrate its potentials to resist against the enormous revolutions of Asia and America National units often enjoy common culture, history, and territory, having a common political plan they try to provide appropriate backgrounds for having collaboration with other nations. National units, different groups and ethnics in collaboration process in a common territory acquire national identity and defend their nationality and territory. We have federalism system with its different forms in the political perspective of the world. It seems to be an effective approach for solving national problems in multi-cultural societies. (Yahyaee, 1384: 15) Globalization, in the present time, is changing monetary and financial markets, production and consumption toward globalizing; public opinions by applying communicational devices lead to globalization, so, the inscrutable power of the governments are declining and multi- structural powers are developing. 2. Research design and its importance: Proponents of federalism, who have attracted a lot of attentions from political forces and elites of national units, believe that dividing power among the units paves the ways for more collaboration and develops national identity. As a result, not only the territorial integrity is damaged, but also reinforces national impression among national units and different ethnics. In this regard, the democratic institutes are created and organized by people. In this situation, the democratic atmosphere of country paves the way for discourse under its shadow intellectual and helpful thoughts take form. Federalism contributes to the development of democracy, political culture, and gaining experience; as a result, political parties will be more active in the national units; democratic and constant institutes are established; political elites leave seclusion and contribute to training political practitioners, finally sophisticated and skillful political practitioners receive trainings necessary for managing the country. (Bashyryeh, 1995:37) In countries in which different nations live with their various features the development of democracy, politics and economy reflex in their political life, so that respecting nations and ethnics rights is included in the constitutional law. With respect to relative and classic democracy in which the will of majority is dominant, however, sovereignty is in the hands of that nation which has the majority and determines the political fate of the country in accordance their interests. So, the principles of democracy and regulations of multi- national societies can not secure freedom and rights of minor nations and ethnics. Federalism as a pervasive administrative and political approach has high functions and potentials that correspond with the needs of plural societies and is able to solve their structural problems. In order to fulfill this approach in plural societies and adopt it with different situations, first of all we should undertake cultural activities along with political and economical measures. (Kolaee, 2002: 18) Federalism or dividing power among different centers prevents power from concentrating in one center; this in turn leads to the development of democracy in the units. Fulfilling these situations, federalism activates political parties, trains more political elites to participate in countrys leadership and management. If the elites are familiar with social and economical features and needs of units, the can adopt more suitable policies; then they can apply communicational tools, find effective resolutions for the current problems, and develop their relationships with people. If there is close relationship between governmental institutes and people, independent institutes will be allowed to control performances of political power, this matter at last results in democracy development. 3. History and definition of federalism: Federalism originates from the Latin word Foedos that means agreement or treaty. Thus, cooperation and unity among different groups and units in search of establishing larger units to fulfill their common objectives is called federalism. (Habermas, 1996: 13) In political terms, federal government is a kind of political organization in which political power is divided among smaller political units; each one has its own regulations and institutes that function in accordance with their interests and public or group origins. In such a system, borders of power and units management are determined by certain regulations. Organizations of different federal nations are not the same. Based on their social, political, and geographical situations they have different features. The United States, Russian Federation, Federal Germany, Canada, Australia, Mexico, Switzerland, and so forth have different structural and administrative organizations. Federal governments have two distinctive administrative systems. First, Federal administration has all the country under its coverage. This kind of administration is an active center conducting administrative activities nationwide. Besides this system, there are plenty of institutes and organizations selected directly by peoples votes that function under peoples monitoring. In the second system countrys administration is divided to smaller units. These administrative units include province to region. Therefore, they are called national or regional units. These federative units function within their borders and are considered to be responsible for a part of country or a certain population. Then, federalism is applied to a kind of administration in which there is a pervasive national government as well as several smaller national units. According to their population or regions, these units divide the political power among them and establish political government based on which. (Yahyaee, 2006: 62) If the process of uniting was in the same direction with the development of modern culture and economy as well as freedom, equality, justice, and law, there would be better results. As the process of nationalization in those western countries established based on power plurality and dividing it has led to democracy establishment. Switzerland, for instance, has got a brilliant history and experience in federative system. This country has always sought to expand this system in accordance with public and states rights. Thus, Switzerland has strengthened relationships among people, culture, language, and various needs. (Thurow, 2001: 86) Lack of centrality has expanded states abilities in accomplishing their activities, created closer relationships between people and governmental agencies and finally, thoroughly has developed democracy across society. As a result, Switzerland is considered to be a member of international family in which all the social and individual rights are secured exactly. A reason of Switzerlands social and economical developments lies in its administrative and political system that it is for a while that are managed federatively. Based on the above discussions, one can make this conclusion that in those countries where different nations and ethnics live with their special cultures and languages, they can pave the ways for a comprehensive progress. In January 1918, the first constitutional law of Russian Soviet Federative Social Republic (RSFSR) in the forth nationwide congress of the soviets was approved. That constitutional law was approved to be applied in managing Russian Federative Republic, as by then the Soviet Union has not been established. (Kolaee, 2002: 18) The constitutional law of 1918 which had suggested its objective as transition from a bourgeois democracy to a proletarian one, at the same time had discussed about nations equal rights and had proposed federalism in accordance with the development of different cultures. While evaluating the Czarina Russia, Lenin had said: Russia is the prison of the public; it is just through establishing the Soviet Union that we can secure all rights of the nations. According to this statement, article 70 of the Soviet Unions constitutional law had named that country as a multi-national one and its federal system in the form of soviets provides all nations with equal rights. (Kolaee, 2002: 170) Like Italy, Spain was ruled by centralist and dominant government of Franco. During that period, fascist and pen fascist thoughts were dominant in the political system. Therefore, democratic movements and public institutes were suppressed strongly. Under the pretext of trying to weaken the central government, regional and local movements, too, were suppressed and their members were pursued. After the death of Franco, there were remarkable changes in Spains political system. In 1987, the constitutional law changed. With respect to cultural and ethnical features, self-determined regions with different possibilities and authorities were established. The new law supported and guaranteed those self-determined regions. As a result, after the death of Franco they undertook remarkable measures in democraticazing their society. They began some activities in accordance with lack of centrality, determined ways of undertaking their measures and their borders to be able to negotiate with the central government. When the new constitutional law was approved, according to cultural, lingual, geographical, religious, and economical differences 17 self-determined regions were established. (Yahyaee, 2006: 64) Canadian federal system is consisted of 10 units; 9 of them are ruled by English speakers and the other one is governed by French speakers. Quebec is the only state French speakers have control over. This state is economically, especially in industry sector developed. Some social groups, especially extremist nationalists seek to separate this state from Canada. (Khobroyepak, 1999: 186) 4. Basic features of federative systems: Federalism forms based on two principles. First, based on population; that is, it should have sufficient similarities. Second, based on geographical regions which should have some differences with other regions. (Khobroyepak, 1999: 190) The number of constituent units depends on geographical divisions. Thus, these units take on different names. In some countries, for example, we have units called state, province, region, self-determined, and autonomous governments. The United States of America is consisted of some 50 states, Federal Republic of Germany of 16 units, Russian Federation of 89 different units with special rights and authorities, India of 25 states and Belgium of 6 regions. (Khobroyepak, 1999: 192) A federal system functions independently in its interior affairs. In federal systems public institutes are controlled by people, as political institutes are selected by people. Their performances, then, are controlled by people and democratic institutes which are not under the control of government. Canada is consisted of 10 federals and 11 administrative centres. Thus, federal systems are called multi-cantered systems. (Khobroyepak, 1999: 193) Nowadays, units of federal systems are not able to accomplish great projects by themselves and need the cooperation of other units. This element creates unity among the units. Federalism is an administrative system and a method of governing in which there are different centres of power. Unlike centralized systems which are ruled from one centre, in federal system there is a pervasive national government with several regional governments differing from autonomous or self-determined governments remarkably. Two-parted federal systems consist of 3 power centres. Attending the applications of refugees, accepting or rejecting foreigners residing or ways of settling them in different states, as well as establishing different associations are among the responsibilities of the states. Decision makings and performances of the states should correspond with expectations of the federal. Those units established as state or region having common culture and language with other unite, confine their activities mostly to development, construction, housing, water supply, conserving natural resources, and environment conservation. Educational and cultural activities of these units have their own regulations enacted by the federal governments which are carried out across the federal country. Units are mostly engaged in economical and constructive activities. There are different centers for making and executing decisions in federal governments; as units are responsible for monitoring and observing political and economical regulations and the centre has no if any intervene in units interior affairs. Finally, those units have their representatives in central organizations and have direct participation in decision makings; as it is one of the basic features of federalism. Establishing federal governments without units having economic possibilities is impossible, as units legal and administrative guarantees depend on their financial power. (Yahyaee, 2006: 95) It is why in establishing units based on population and geographical regions economical potentials and financial power are more emphasized on. Executing this policy in some cases, however, raises dissatisfaction or causes tension between national and ethnical groups. Most of the federal countries are divided based on geographical researches and establish their units according to these researches. These geographical regions are located alongside each other according to their common political and economical interests. People of these regions may have different cultures, races, religions and special features. (Maghsudi, 2001: 241) These features include race, culture, language, and national and religious beliefs. So, geographical units bring about some cultural and natural differences. These cultural and national differences whether have a long history or are created by the pass of time or political and historical events. Anyhow, these differences are of great importance in establishing federal units. Certainly, in the constitutional law of a federal country the relationship between the center and its related units and visa versa has been determined, their authorities and obligations, too, have been explained. In adopting federalism as a political system for a country, cultural, lingual, religious and ethnical differences have great importance. Among the important features of federalism one can refer to power division among the units, it is while we can meet the needs of those civilians who have different languages and cultures by adopting policies like corporatism, pluralism, and functionalism, but these concepts have no consistency with federalism. Dividing power according to geographical region and organizing federal system are the inseparable parts of federal systems. (Maghsudi, 2001: 243) Thus, the term federalism is applied to those units having geographical borders and interior regulations while participating in the central government. In federal systems, will of people can not alone decide on some of their wishes or fulfill them, it is the federal units and their residents who are determinant, as they propose their wills to the national assembly and control its performances. Thus, in the process of policy making in federal governments not only the people of country but also residents of the units affect this process. The number of parliament members depends on population. The more population a unit has, the more representatives it has. As a principle of federal systems, units have equal rights in the parliament and no one can change these rights for the benefits of others. People of those countries that have federal political systems have got multi- identities; that is, from one hand they have national identity and from the other hand they have a single identity belonging to their unit. These dependencies are either regional and geographical or ethnical and population; in each case those people simultaneously have more than one identity. They can refer to federal administrations or units organizations to have their applications attended. In most of the cases, they refer to their local organizations. As they can easily control their performances. Among other features of federalism we can name power division, units equality and having equal rights. These features exactly correspond to the essence of federalism. (Castells, 1997: 392) From international laws point of view, constituent units of federal country are not considered to be a whole and independent country, so, in international associations they do not enjoy the same benefits with independent countries. However, they can engage in some mutual economical contracts. Federal country attends the international associations on behalf of its related units and functions by their names. 5. Federalism and democracy: In federal systems public and democratic institutes control over government and administrative organizations performances, mainly in executing rules with respect to the different centers of power will be more effective. In this regard, federalism with its certain structure and regulations provides all the necessary possibilities for executing rules and expanding democracy for all the people and national or ethnical groups. We do not mean that other countries having centralized or self-determined structures are unable in executing democratic rules or respecting human rights. Some countries, especially those developed centralized ones with respect to their social and cultural differences produce macro policies, and then apply them in accordance with the interests of society and social groups. In a country where different nations live, development and institutionalization of democracy is in contrast with power concentration in a centre, as in such political organizing governments power increasingly grows so that by applying its power and relying on one of those reasons, it turns its people to some peasants and bases and governs them easily. (Maghsudi, 2001: 250) If power is divided and the law has sovereignty in a society, people are allowed to use these potentials and control governments performances. As a result, different units in a federal country contribute to survival and development of democracy. Proponents of democracy in multi-national countries defend nations rights and federalism. It should be said that federalism can not spontaneously reinforce democracy, and even some kinds of federalism may develop inequalities among the nations and weaken their correlation. Trying to find a form of democracy which can set civil nationality and equal citizenship rights in a society, prevent national and ethnical prejudgments is one of the most important duties of proponents of democracy in different societies. In federal systems, people have more participation in their political fate, political and economical competitions revolve the society, and in turn, this contributes to developing democracy and institutionalizing it. In societies where different nations with different cultures are living, creating solidity and nationalization has taken a lot of time, has spoiled appropriate opportunities and the necessary correlation for public progress has encountered a lot of challenges. Therefore, by reserving nations identity we can pave the ways for cooperation; create voluntary unity to reach common objectives. Federal system with its special structure prepares necessary opportunities in this regard, as the civilians not only participate in their unit, but also play remarkable roles in the political activities of their society. Undertaking economical competitions along with exhibiting art works, sports and other activities of units lead to the development of different sectors; this process, then, results in more correlation among nations; it is why federal system is considered to be an effective tool in expanding and maintaining democracy. In single and centralized systems, however, the cooperation between nations and different ethnics takes place in accordance with class and group interests, but this cooperation is found to be fragile; because if these interests are damaged, this cooperation will break down. This situation is more common in those countries which have not yet formed civil society or their social institutes are not so effective. Anyhow, these two administrative systems are organized with respect to social situations, population and geographical structure and have their special features. We should remind that democracy and its institutes do not form just in federal systems, as some countries with single administrative systems have made some remarkable progresses in creating civil society and developing democratic institutes, European developed countries can be good examples in this regard. So, having federal systems does not assure providing democracy and respecting international charter of human rights, but democratic institutes should develop to allow people to have direct intervene in their political fate. Having federal or pen federal law does not guarantee providing social and individual freedoms, as federal system is different from uniparty systems, marital dictatorship, and totalitarian regimes. Federalism is based on this concept that its related units have their own policy makings while having direct intervene in policy makings of the central government. Thus, the structure of representation takes shape and power will be divided. (Khobroyepak, 1999: 202) the units reserve their features including: language, religion, culture, history, and economy then make effort to reinforce them and patrol their national interests. In the case of having different power centers, the possibilities of centralization and empowering of a centre or a certain group disappear. Also, the system of democracy observation is applied by the units to reserve them, as observing law articles guarantees their survival. In those countries where federal system is adopted successfully, power centers seek to create political and economical cooperation among units to enjoy their benefits. Most of the policy researchers believe that federalism is one of the best choices and methods for supplying rights of ethnical, religious, and national minorities. As the law guarantees these rights and plurality of power centers pave the ways for reserving social structure and explaining its differences. The units keep their cultural, social, and economical identity. Therefore, they would not suffer from identity crisis and this, in turn, contributes to correlation among nations. Some countries governed by single systems try to develop democratic rights and solve ethnical problems by establishing autonomy and considering geographical situations. It is while supplying just political rights can not provide social justice, but the backgrounds of economical justice should be arranged. Accepting plurality federal countries get more ready for social revolutions. Therefore, accepting and developing democracy in these countries has prior backgrounds and can institutionalize easily, as cultural and social differences are accepted by these countries, so trying to reserve plurality results in rapid growth of culture. Ultimately, the bed for development of democracy and social and economical progress will be available. Stable democracy in federal systems depends on the relationships between units and the relationships between the centre and its related units. Power division among units and units participation in federal decision makings indicate of democracy development across society and peoples participation in their political fate. There are some federal systems, in which the units dont have sufficient power or authority, and then they are unable to decide about their social, political, and even economical fate; in comparison to autonomous regions, these units enjoy fewer authorities. Therefore, political participation of units in the central government and peoples role in determining policies of units show the degree of maturity and development of democracy in these societies. Owning to the remarkable developments in computer technology in the recent decades, now different countries are closer to each other and have developed their regional cooperation. (Falsafi, 1998: 249) Due to plurality in power centers, federalism has shortened peoples distance from these centers and has allowed them to have more participation. In those countries that have democratic systems and there is a single political system managing society politically, people participate in their political fate freely and select their representatives in accordance with their interests, then send them to the parliament and observe the execution of policies. Constitutional laws of federal countries are more often democratic, liberal, and have some features that encourage people to participate in their fate. It seems that all those countries which have any kind of political systems seek to display their constitutional laws as democratic by adding some democratic articles to them. It is beyond doubt that having some democratic articles in law does not indicate of democracy and has no administrative guarantees. As people and public institutes dont have power of monitoring and in the case of repre ssing the regulations by the ruling government have no means to defend it. In federal systems observing law is possible through different power centers. As forming dictatorship and controlling all the centers of power is difficult and with regard to their special situations, suppressing all the units can not be easily possible. It is why reserving constitutional law and operating democracy in federal countries are easier. (Falsafi, 1998: 249) unfortunately, there are some social and economical discriminations owning to them all the social groups dont have equal opportunities and possibilities. So, federalism by having extensive possibilities for expanding democracy and freedom across the society can not apply democracy by itself; but social, economical, and political backgrounds should be provided for the society to take steps towards democracy and social justice. Enjoying extensive potentials for solving social problems and identity crisis, federalism can not solve all social problems and in action encounters some shortages. Constituent parts of federal government act in accordance with their economical and social interests, and then create the sufficient regulations for their social and cultural development. They try to reserve their identity and reinforce it. Among these units, there are some minor groups or ethnics deprived from their social rights, and as are in minority can not reserve their interests and in special situations are suppressed strongly. So, while has those extensive potentials, federalism is found to be unable to develop pervasive democracy for all groups and ethnics; as a result it keeps social contradictions and crisis inside itself. For instance, we can refer to the situation of Negroes in different states of America. They are unable to reserve their interests and rights. The policy of their complete rejection or accept ance is adopted. As a result, we observe sometimes some social crisis and violence in those states that are accompanied with polices harsh suppression. (Mawlaee, 2001: 124) Thus, it is the civilians who are responsible for reserving and observing their civil rights. Federalism as a political system with its structural plurality is able to fulfill the charter of human rights and can adopt it in its units. 6. Challenges of federalism: Tremendous economical and social differences among units of federal government and its reflection in lifestyle have led to different approaches to international issues, treaties, conventions, and agreements. Federal government signs the charter of human rights and other agreements and undertakes to fulfill them. But the units considering expectations of the central government as intervene in its interior affairs, refuses executing those agreements. Thus, executing the contents of these treaties that support human rights anywhere and in any situation encounter different problems. Above all, in countries like US, Canada, and Australia that are managed by federal systems, the local people suffer from different deprivations; these deprivations do extensive damages to the federal system and put their justice under question. As, the units while have enormous possibilities, can not supply their ethnics and smaller groups rights and in some cases succumb to suppressing them. Canada, for example, adopting federal system, has allowed the residents of Quebec to use French language and has provided them with all the necessary possibilities to develop their language; it is while that Canada does not allow other speakers to develop their cultures and languages. In spite of those great possibilities federalism has allocated for the freedom of different nations living in a geographical region, can not solve all social problems; thus, cooperation among units is inevitable if we want to strengthen life levels and freedom. When the Soviet Union scattered, in those countries once had been governed by federal systems, separation increased unprecedentedly. A wave of blind nationalism covered those societies. War and murder replaced peaceful coexistence. (Kolaee, 2002: 138) Proposing the right of separation and mentioning it in the law prevents accomplishing long-term projects in federal countries. Distrust in an unknown future leads to political crisis, thus its economical and social results will appear in interior policy makings and international relations. The danger of separation weakens countries political stability. (Bashyryeh, 1995: 300) This process directly affects domestic and foreign investments and determines policial and economical fate of the country. In search of their short-term interests, units avoid long-term cooperation with other units. As a result, administrative organizations of federal government will encounter problems in macro policy makings which consider al peoples interests in l ong-term. 7. Discussion and conclusion: While the development of technology using satellite and information networks pass the borders and do not confine themselves to national governments and geographical borders , insisting on nationalism- in its chauvinistic form-, lingual and ethnical excellence indicates of a historic straying and lack of knowledge. It is taken for granted that any activity in the direction of federalism and political and economical unions requires extensive and open insights in which moderateness and negligence replace ethnical and cultural differences, then the prosper